Associations of Perceived Parenting Practices with Mother–Infant Bonding at 1-Month Postpartum via Adult Attachment, Depression, and Anxiety in Japanese Mothers

Introduction

During the postpartum period, a secure mother–infant bond is essential for maternal and infant mental health, supporting the child’s well-being and laying the foundation for future relationships and social functioning.^1,2 Attachment theory, originally developed by John Bowlby^3–5 and Mary Ainsworth^6–8 and later expanded by Mary Main,⁹ provides an important framework for understanding early relational experiences and their influence across the lifespan. Bowlby proposed that attachment is an innate biological system that motivates infants to seek closeness to caregivers, forming a unique relationship that supports survival and healthy psychological development.^3–5 Ainsworth advanced the theory through empirical research and introduced key concepts such as the caregiver as a secure base from which infants can explore their environment and maternal sensitivity, highlighting how responsive caregiving shapes attachment patterns.^6–8 Later, Main extended the theory by demonstrating that adults’ representations of their own childhood attachment experiences can influence the attachment patterns of their children.⁹

These perspectives highlight the intergenerational transmission of parenting, in which attachment patterns are transmitted across generations; early parental experiences shape later caregiving approaches.^10–13 Positive parenting characteristics, such as warmth, responsiveness, and involvement, are more likely to emerge in the context of secure attachment relationships and supportive social environments.^14,15 Conversely, exposure to harsh or negative parenting during childhood has been associated with emotional and behavioral maladjustment and may contribute to the continuity of maladaptive parenting patterns across generations.¹⁵ Observational learning further contributes to this cycle, as individuals may replicate parenting behaviors they observed in their own caregivers.^16,17 Together, these mechanisms illustrate how both positive and negative parenting patterns can be transmitted across generations. Disrupted bonding may impair development and increase the risk of psychological difficulties in children,^18,19 with long-term intergenerational consequences. A nationwide survey in Japan found that 26.1% of 6256 postpartum women reported bonding difficulties.²⁰ Despite this prevalence, the mechanisms linking mothers’ early parental relationships to bonding with their own infants remain unclear.

Parenting in Japan has traditionally been characterized by a relational style emphasizing emotional harmony and maternal responsibility.^21,22 Mothers are generally viewed as the primary caregivers, while fathers have traditionally played a less active role in daily childcare, reflecting broader gender roles in which fathers are positioned as main financial providers and maternal responsibility for caregiving is emphasized.²³ Additionally, long working hours among fathers further limit their time with children and participation in childcare.²⁴ Consequently, recent discussions on public normative attitudes toward diverse parenting practices in Japan have increasingly emphasized the importance of shared parenting responsibilities and greater paternal involvement in childrearing to support family well-being.²⁵

Several studies suggest that women’s perceptions of parenting before adolescence can predict later bonding difficulties with their infants.^26,27 Mothers often replicate caregiving patterns internalized from their own parents, shaping how they relate to their children.²⁸ A high level of perceived parental care has been reported as a protective factor, facilitating adjustment to pregnancy and motherhood, reducing distress, and enhancing bonding.²⁹ However, Hall et al found no such association.³⁰ This discrepancy between the findings of previous studies indicates that the link between perceived parenting and bonding may operate indirectly, possibly through adult attachment style.

Adult attachment style, shaped by parental care and overprotection during childhood,³¹ may play a crucial role in the mother–infant bonding process. Women often revisit memories and perceptions of attachment to their parents,^32,33 which can influence how they bond with their infants. Parental care fosters a willingness to meet infants’ needs for proximity, safety, and security.³⁴ Moreover, secure adult attachment supports emotional regulation and healthy relationships, whereas insecure attachment has been linked to bonding difficulties in the postpartum period.³⁵ Although maternal adult attachment style has been shown to directly influence bonding, some previous studies have reported no significant effect.³⁶

In addition to adult attachment style, accumulating evidence indicates that maternal psychological factors, particularly depression and anxiety, contribute significantly to bonding difficulties.³⁷ Perceived parenting has both direct and indirect effects on maternal–infant bonding through depression and anxiety.³⁸ Negative parenting experiences in childhood may foster insecure adult attachment styles,³¹ which heighten vulnerability to postpartum psychopathology. For example, adult attachment has been shown to influence bonding via postpartum depression and anxiety, each contributing in distinct ways.³⁶ Several studies have highlighted the mediating role of postpartum depression, suggesting that insecure attachment increases the risk of depression, which subsequently disrupts bonding.^39,40 In contrast, the role of postpartum anxiety as a mediator between adult attachment and bonding has received little research attention. Moreover, although the direct link between postpartum depression and impaired bonding has been well established,^41–43 further research is needed to elucidate the direct association between postpartum anxiety and impaired bonding.⁴⁴

Although numerous studies have highlighted the roles of perceived parenting, adult attachment, and maternal mental health—particularly postpartum depression and anxiety—in shaping maternal–infant bonding. To the best of our knowledge, no previous studies have integrated these variables into a single comprehensive model. Our previous study³⁸ demonstrated that perceived negative parenting exerted both direct effects and indirect effects on bonding through anxiety and depression, but adult attachment was not included in the path model. Despite the strong sociocultural emphasis on close mother–infant bonding and maternal responsibility in Japan,^21,22 a significant gap remains in East Asian populations regarding these dynamics. Such cultural expectations may shape the ways in which women internalize early parenting experiences and respond to the psychological demands of motherhood. In contrast, Stéphanie et al⁴⁵ reported that maternal attachment to a partner was influenced by attachment to the father and associated with postpartum depression, which in turn affected mother–infant bonding. However, their model did not account for anxiety or for specific bonding subtypes, such as lack of affection and anger/rejection. Clarifying how attachment patterns evolve from early caregiver interactions, through adult romantic relationships, and into the maternal role, while considering depression and anxiety, may provide critical insights for promoting healthy mother–infant bonding.

Integrating theoretical and empirical perspectives, this study proposes a conceptual framework in which perceived parenting practices influence postpartum mother–infant bonding through psychological and relational mechanisms. Rooted in attachment theory, early caregiving experiences are thought to shape internal working models of relationships, reflected in adult attachment styles. These attachment patterns may influence maternal emotional well-being during the postpartum period, particularly depression and anxiety, which can in turn affect the quality of mother–infant bonding. Within this framework, perceived maternal and paternal parenting practices may influence bonding both directly and indirectly through adult attachment and maternal psychological distress.

On the basis of this conceptual framework, the current study aimed to examine the direct and indirect pathways linking perceived maternal and paternal parenting practices before adolescence to mother–infant bonding at 1 month postpartum, using an integrated path model. We focused on the mediating roles of adult attachment, postpartum depression, and postpartum anxiety. We hypothesized that perceived parental care and overprotection from both parents were indirectly associated with bonding through adult attachment and maternal mental health. Specifically, we expected that adult attachment would mediate the association between perceived parenting and postpartum depression and anxiety. Furthermore, we anticipated that higher perceived parental care and lower overprotection would be associated with more secure adult attachment, lower levels of depression and anxiety, and less difficulty in mother–infant bonding.

Materials and Methods

Participants

This study was conducted as part of the Perinatal Mental Health Research Project, which was conducted from March 2017 to March 2021.^31,36–38 Study participants were recruited from 34 affiliated obstetric institutions in Niigata Prefecture, Japan, with random convenience and purposive sampling. Initially, 4586 Japanese women responded to the questionnaires. However, 1685 questionnaires were excluded because they contained incomplete responses. Therefore, in the current study, we included a total of 2901 healthy women who completed the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI), the Relationship Questionnaire (RQ), the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), and the Mother-to-Infant Bonding Scale (MIBS) at 1 month postpartum, without missing values. Women with serious physical complications or pregnancy-related complications requiring hospitalization, or severe psychiatric disorders for which they were undergoing treatment as documented in their medical records (eg, schizophrenia, major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, anxiety disorder, and personality disorder) were excluded.

Measures

Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI)

The PBI is a 25-item self-administered questionnaire used to evaluate how individuals recall their parents’ behaviors and attitudes during their childhood up to the age of 16. Respondents assess their mother and father separately using a four-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (“Very unlikely”) to 3 (“Very likely”). The PBI consists of two primary dimensions: care (12 items) and overprotection (13 items). The care category is scored on a scale of 0–36, with higher scores indicating a more loving parental attitude and lower scores indicating an indifferent or rejecting parental attitude. The category of overprotection is scored on a scale of 0–39, with higher scores indicating overprotective or overly interfering parental attitudes and lower scores indicating a parental attitude that values spontaneity and child autonomy.⁴⁶ The Japanese version of the PBI was translated and created by Kitamura and Suzuki, and its reliability and validity have been confirmed.⁴⁷

Relationship Questionnaire (RQ)

The RQ is used to assess adult attachment styles in romantic relationships, a widely validated measure grounded in Bowlby’s theory of internal working models.⁴⁸ The RQ includes four brief descriptions representing distinct attachment patterns, including secure, fearful, preoccupied, and dismissive. Participants were asked to rate each description on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = “Does not apply at all” to 7 = “Applies very much”), on the basis of how well it reflected their relationship with a partner.⁴⁸ We used the Japanese version of the RQ, which has previously been demonstrated to have reliability and construct validity among Japanese adolescents.⁴⁹ In this study, we applied the four-category model, which provides separate scores for each of the four attachment styles, as defined by the original RQ.⁴⁸

Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS)

The HADS is a self-report instrument used to evaluate symptoms of anxiety and depression.⁵⁰ This scale comprises 14 items, with seven items assessing anxiety (A: items 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, and 13) and the other seven evaluating depression (D: items 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14). Each item is rated on a four-point Likert scale ranging from 0 to 3. Some items are reverse-scored, and total scores are calculated by summing responses, with higher scores reflecting more severe symptoms. Although the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) is the most widely used tool for screening postpartum depression, and some studies have also used the EPDS anxiety subscales (EPDS-3A and EPDS-4A) to assess anxiety symptoms,^51,52 in the present study we used the HADS because it was part of the routine psychological assessment conducted at the participating clinics and hospitals. This allowed consistent data collection across participants. The HADS has also been widely applied in perinatal populations,^43,53–55 including for validation of the Japanese version.^56,57 Additionally, the HADS provides separate and well-validated measures of anxiety and depression and excludes somatic symptoms such as insomnia, loss of appetite, and fatigue, thereby minimizing overlap with normal physiological changes during the postpartum period.⁵⁸

Mother-to-Infant Bonding Scale (MIBS)

The MIBS is a self-reporting questionnaire designed to assess maternal bonding with the baby during the postpartum period. The MIBS was originally composed of eight items,⁵⁹ and two additional items were later added, resulting in a 10-item scale.⁶⁰ The MIBS is rated on a four-point Likert scale (from 0, “very much” to 3, “not at all”), with reversed scoring for some items. The MIBS-J contains two subscales: lack of affection (LA: items 1, 6, 8, and 10) and anger and rejection (AR: items 2, 3, 5, and 7).⁶¹ The Japanese version of the MIBS has been validated⁴¹ and is commonly used to assess mother–infant bonding in Japan.^20,62,63

Statistical Analyses

We included all data for the statistical analyses without missing values. First, we calculated the mean and standard deviation of participants’ subscale and total scores of the PBI, RQ, HADS, and MIBS. We then calculated the Pearson correlation coefficients among variables of the PBI subscales (paternal care, paternal overprotection, maternal care, and maternal overprotection), RQ (secure, fearful, preoccupied, and dismissive), HADS subscales (depression [D] and anxiety [A]), and MIBS subscale (LA and AR) scores. The statistical significance criterion regarding the difference for both tests was set at a P value of < 0.00075 according to the Bonferroni correction for 66 statistical tests.

Second, we performed a structural equation modeling analysis to investigate the relationships among multiple variables of the PBI, RQ, HADS, and MIBS simultaneously within our proposed model. We performed a path analysis with two latent variables of PBI-father and PBI-mother, a latent variable of the RQ, the observable variables of the HADS-D and HADS-A, as well as the observable variables of the MIBS-LA and MIBS-AR. PBI-father and -mother were derived from the observable variables of paternal and maternal care and overprotection, respectively. Adult attachment (RQ) was formed from four observable variables of secure, fearful, preoccupied, and dismissive. Specifically, we drew paths as follows: (i) from each of PBI-father and PBI-mother to RQ, HADS (D and A), and MIBS (LA and AR) (ii) from RQ to HADS (D and A), and MIBS (LA and AR) (iii) from HADS-D to MIBS (LA and AR) and from HADS-A to MIBS (LA and AR).

We used the bootstrapping method with 2000 resamples and obtained 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for direct and indirect pathways. We set statistically significant paths (P < 0.05) in the final model. Model fit was assessed using the comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker–Lewis index (TLI), and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). Values of CFI and TLI > 0.90 indicate good fit and > 0.95 excellent fit, whereas RMSEA < 0.05 indicates good fit and < 0.08 acceptable fit.^64,65 Third, to confirm the significance of indirect effects in the path model, we employed the bootstrap method using bias-corrected 95% CIs. All statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS version 31 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA) and AMOS version 25.0.0 (IBM Japan, Tokyo, Japan).

Results

Descriptive Analyses

This study included 2901 mothers (1381 primipara and 1520 multipara) aged 17–49 years (mean ± standard deviation: 32.16 ± 4.69 years) who completed the PBI, RQ, HADS, and MIBS, without missing data. Table 1 shows the descriptive scores of the PBI, RQ, HADS, and MIBS at 1 month postpartum.

Table 1 PBI, RQ, HADS, and MIBS Scores (n = 2901)

Correlation Analyses

All correlations among variables from the PBI, RQ, HADS, and MIBS were significant after applying the Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons (adjusted threshold P < 0.00075; Table 2). Parental care, both paternal and maternal, was positively correlated with secure adult attachment and negatively correlated with insecure attachment styles (fearful, preoccupied, and dismissive), as well as with maternal depression, anxiety, and bonding difficulties (LA and AR). Conversely, parental overprotection was positively associated with insecure attachment styles and with higher levels of depression, anxiety, and bonding difficulties. Secure adult attachment style showed significant negative correlations with depression, anxiety, and bonding difficulty variables, whereas insecure attachment styles were positively correlated with these outcomes. Furthermore, both depression and anxiety were significantly positively correlated with bonding difficulties.

Table 2 Coefficients Between the PBI, RQ, MIBS, and HADS

Path Model Examining the Direct Relationships Among PBI, RQ, HADS, and MIBS Scores

The path model demonstrated an acceptable-to-good fit to the data (CFI = 0.949, TLI = 0.908, and RMSEA = 0.064; Figure 1). In the path model, both perceived paternal and maternal parenting were significantly associated with adult attachment style, paternal parenting (r = 0.297, 95% CI [0.180, 0.429], P < 0.001), and maternal parenting (r = 0.200, 95% CI [0.069, 0.322], P = 0.006), as shown in the bootstrap analysis (Table 3).

Table 3 Bootstrap Direct Effects

Figure 1 Path model illustrating the relationships between perceived parenting practices (PBI), RQ, Hads, MIBS at 1 month postpartum. Significant paths (P < 0.05) are shown as solid lines. Non-significant paths are indicated by dashed lines. Abbreviations: PBI, parental bonding instrument; RQ, relationship questionnaire; HADS, hospital anxiety and depression scale; MIBS, mother-to-infant bonding scale.

Postpartum depression was significantly positively associated with bonding difficulties, including LA (r = 0.313, 95% CI [0.268, 0.357], P < 0.001) and AR (r = 0.113, 95% CI [0.056, 0.167], P < 0.001). Similarly, postpartum anxiety was significantly correlated with LA (r = 0.172, 95% CI [0.124, 0.220], P < 0.001) and AR (r = 0.203, 95% CI [0.153, 0.256], P < 0.001). Although paternal parenting was not directly linked to bonding difficulties, maternal parenting was significantly associated with LA (r = –0.108, 95% CI [–0.208, –0.011], P = 0.023).

Bootstrap Analysis of Indirect Effects of PBI on MIBS via RQ and HADS

The bootstrap analysis confirmed several significant indirect effects along the hypothesized mediation pathways (Table 4). Paternal parenting was indirectly associated with LA via the sequential mediators of adult attachment and, subsequently, depression (r = –0.007, 95% CI [–0.011, –0.004], P < 0.001), as well as via adult attachment and subsequent anxiety (r = –0.005, 95% CI [–0.008, –0.003], P < 0.001). Additionally, paternal parenting was indirectly associated with AR via adult attachment and subsequently depression (r = –0.002, 95% CI [–0.003, –0.001], P < 0.001), as well as via adult attachment and subsequent anxiety (r = –0.004, 95% CI [–0.006, –0.002], P < 0.001).

Table 4 Bootstrap Indirect Effects

Likewise, maternal parenting demonstrated a significant indirect association with LA via adult attachment style and subsequent depression (r = –0.005, 95% CI [–0.009, –0.002], P = 0.004), and via attachment and subsequent anxiety (r = –0.004, 95% CI [–0.007, –0.001], P = 0.004). For AR, maternal parenting also showed indirect correlation via adult attachment style and subsequent depression (r = –0.001, 95% CI [–0.003, 0.000], P = 0.002) and via adult attachment style and subsequent anxiety (r = –0.003, 95% CI [–0.005, –0.001], P = 0.004).

Moreover, perceived paternal parenting showed a significant indirect association with bonding difficulties via depression, for both LA and AR (r = –0.010 and –0.002, 95% CI [–0.021, 0.000] and [–0.005, 0.000], P = 0.045 and 0.033, respectively), but not via anxiety. In contrast, perceived maternal parenting demonstrated a significant indirect correlation with bonding difficulties via depression, for both LA and AR (r = –0.013 and –0.003, 95% CI [–0.026, –0.003] and [–0.007, –0.001], P = 0.013 and 0.009, respectively), and via anxiety for both LA and AR (r = –0.009 and –0.006, 95% CI [–0.016, –0.002] and [–0.012, –0.002], P = 0.007 and 0.007, respectively).

Discussion

In the current study, we investigated the direct and indirect pathways linking perceived maternal and paternal parenting before adolescence to mother–infant bonding at 1 month postpartum, using an integrated path model. Prior studies have produced inconsistent findings,^66,67 partly because models often examined single mediators in isolation rather than multiple pathways simultaneously. Our integrated model extends this work by considering adult attachment, depression, and anxiety together, providing a more comprehensive explanation of how early parenting influences bonding. The results significantly supported our hypotheses that perceived parenting practices were indirectly associated with bonding through adult attachment style and subsequent postpartum depression and anxiety. Both paternal and maternal parenting were significantly associated with adult attachment. While paternal parenting was not directly related to bonding difficulties, maternal parenting was directly associated with a lack of affection in bonding. Furthermore, paternal parenting was indirectly associated with bonding difficulties via depression, but not via anxiety. In contrast, maternal parenting was indirectly associated with bonding difficulties via depression and anxiety.

Our findings are in accord with developmental and intergenerational models of caregiving,^10–13 in which early parental care fosters secure attachment and resilience, whereas overprotection increases vulnerability to insecure attachment and psychopathology. Consistent with prior research, higher parental care was associated with more secure attachment, lower depression and anxiety, and fewer bonding difficulties, while higher overprotection was linked to adverse outcomes.^31,38 Maternal attachment style has also been shown to influence mother–infant bonding through parenting stress,³⁵ as well as depression and anxiety.³⁶ Gioia et al²⁹ reported that both perceived maternal and paternal care directly predicted bonding in pregnancy using a regression model, whereas the current findings demonstrated that only maternal parenting was directly associated with bonding. Importantly, our path model emphasized that both positive and negative dimensions of early caregiving are linked to adult attachment and subsequent mother–infant relationships. Given evidence that grandmothers’ parenting predicts observed parenting in mothers and fathers,⁶⁸ our findings suggest that adult attachment and subsequent depression and anxiety may mediate this intergenerational transmission. Future research is needed to clarify these pathways and the factors that sustain transmission across generations.

Early caregiving experiences from both mothers and fathers play a critical role in shaping adult attachment and later bonding with infants. Previous research has often focused on maternal influences^68,69 in shaping attachment and bonding, while paternal influences have been relatively overlooked. Our findings extend this literature by highlighting the importance of considering both parents’ roles, revealing that both paternal and maternal parenting were directly associated with adult attachment style, and subsequently, had an indirect relationship with bonding. This finding is consistent with a recent meta-analysis showing that both maternal and paternal attachment are essential.⁷⁰ However, in Japanese families, childbirth typically marks a life transition in which the mother’s role intensifies²³ while the wife’s role diminishes. Meanwhile, fathers often become isolated from their families after childbirth because of their increased absorption in the provider role and the long working hours involved.²⁴ This lack of partner support places significant psychological pressure on mothers, leading to increasing advocacy for shared parenting and greater paternal participation to enhance family well-being within Japanese communities.²⁵ In accordance with this shift, a recent study by Meerits et al⁷¹ implemented training that was aimed at enhancing parents’ motivational parenting behaviors toward their children. Comparing the current results with these previous findings could provide additional insight into how supportive parenting practices influence psychological and relational outcomes. Moreover, these results⁷¹ may inform future research aimed at developing and evaluating targeted intervention programs that promote motivational parenting behaviors. Such programs could be guided by established classification frameworks of motivational behaviors, such as those proposed by Ahmadi et al,⁷² to systematically design programs and assess their effectiveness. Previous studies have shown that abnormal parental bonding can increase susceptibility to mental disorders later in life,^73,74 potentially through multiple mediating factors such as abnormal coping mechanisms and personality factors.^75,76 In addition, Bernard et al⁷⁷ reported that low partner support is linked to postpartum depression, underscoring the critical role of partner involvement in maternal mental health. Therefore, future research is needed to elucidate fathers’ roles on perinatal mental health and the development of secured bonding within the Japanese context.

In the current study, the RQ four-category model as a latent variable was used as a parsimonious representation of the shared variance among attachment indicators, rather than assuming that attachment is strictly categorical or fixed, while recognizing that attachment may also be conceptualized dimensionally along a continuum and vary across relational or stressful life contexts.^78,79 This analytic approach was informed by our previous study among 4586 Japanese perinatal women, supporting the adequacy of the RQ four-category model as a latent variable.³¹ However, the findings should be interpreted within the limitations of the cross-sectional design used in the current study.

Taken together, these findings suggest that both fathers’ and mothers’ parenting behaviors were linked to their daughters’ attachment representations, which were subsequently correlated with partner relationships, maternal mental health, and bonding with their infants. In addition, perceived maternal parenting showed a direct association on mother–infant bonding, in accord with the findings of Jamine et al;⁸⁰ the mothers learned protective parenting practices from their own mothers through instruction, observation, and modeling within social interactions. This highlights the need to address intergenerational patterns by focusing on women across generations because mothers are the primary caregivers who first nurture the baby and form the initial bond. The father’s role is also crucial, because his involvement in the mother’s sense of security fosters a secure attachment to her partner and, in turn, supports bonding with the baby. Furthermore, prevention and intervention efforts may benefit from incorporating both parents into perinatal mental health programs. However, further studies are needed to clarify how paternal and maternal roles interact and uniquely contribute to creating a secure attachment to a partner and bonding to the infant.

Our results also underscore the crucial mediating roles of maternal depression and anxiety in the pathways from adult attachment to bonding. Consistent with prior research, postpartum depression was strongly associated with impaired bonding, particularly lack of affection.^39–43 Previous studies also suggest that the intergenerational transmission of a rejective or hostile parenting style is mediated by the caregiver’s mental health, including depression, anxiety, and stress.⁸¹ While some studies support our findings by identifying postpartum depression⁸² as a key mediator, few have examined anxiety. Importantly, our study also highlights the role of postpartum anxiety, which mediated the relationship between attachment insecurity and both bonding subtypes. Anxiety was associated with bonding difficulties, suggesting that anxious mothers may experience difficulties with emotional regulation that directly affect their interactions with their infants. Despite its prevalence and clinical relevance, postpartum anxiety has often been overlooked in comparison with depression. Accumulating evidence indicates that both depression^83,84 and anxiety⁸⁵ further contribute to bonding difficulties. By incorporating anxiety into the model, our study provides a more comprehensive understanding of the psychological pathways leading to bonding difficulties. Clinically, the results highlight the need for perinatal screening and interventions that address both depression and anxiety. Although the statistical significance of these pathways confirms the hypothesized theoretical model between PBI and LA, its small effect size suggests that maternal bonding in the Japanese context is a highly complex construct, in which mediated factors (ie, RQ and D) are likely to make a greater contribution to the variance. Nevertheless, clinical intervention targeting insecure adult attachment, depression, and anxiety may yield more immediate improvements in maternal–infant bonding. Additionally, clinicians may also explore the postpartum women’s history of the parenting they received to gain further insights into how attachment is associated with bonding patterns towards their infants, even though these indirect pathways might have very small effect sizes statistically. Moreover, interventions targeting parenting style and motivation^71,72 should be taken into account because they may contribute to a greater impact on relational outcomes in the next generation.

Our study involved several limitations that should be considered. First, the cross-sectional design at 1 month postpartum precludes conclusions about temporal or causal mediation. The results should therefore be interpreted as statistical associations that are consistent with the hypothesized mediation model. Longitudinal studies are needed to confirm these relationships. Second, the reliance on self-report measures may have introduced recall or response biases. Third, the findings are based on a Japanese sample, which may limit their generalizability to other cultural contexts, although the large dataset provides strong validity. Fourth, although our model included perceived parenting, adult attachment, depression, and anxiety, other factors such as participants’ family structure,^86,87 adverse life events,⁸⁸ social support,^89,90 marital relationship quality,⁹¹ and education level^92,93 were not assessed. Future research should address these limitations by employing longitudinal, multi-method, and cross-cultural approaches, as well as incorporating fathers’ perspectives and direct observations of parent–infant interactions.

Conclusion

The current study provides evidence that both perceived maternal and paternal parenting practices are associated with mother–infant bonding via adult attachment style and subsequent postpartum depression and anxiety. Interestingly, paternal parenting showed a stronger indirect association with bonding than maternal parenting. These findings extend existing models of intergenerational transmission of caregiving. Although the observed indirect associations were small, they are likely to reflect the complexity of the relationship and potential biases; nevertheless, psychoeducational and therapeutic strategies that help women process and reframe early parenting experiences may strengthen attachment security, thereby reducing vulnerability to postpartum psychopathology and bonding difficulties. Further research should adopt longitudinal approaches to clarify the causal pathways of intergenerational transmission of parenting and bonding from both maternal and paternal roles more directly, while also developing and testing motivational parenting interventions.